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A^ERic A m Man » ifl N . Co . 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



(Hjap, ©ojnjng^i Ifa- 

Shelf rjLS& 

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



Smith's American Manikin 



Teachers' Hand Book 

INTENDED TO ACCOMPANY 

Smith's American Manikin 

For Schools. 



Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene 



INCLUDING THE EFFECTS OF 



ALCOHOL AND NARCOTICS 
By K. B. LYNCH. 



I am certain I coald have performed twice the labor \ both better 
and with greater ease to myself had I k?wzvn as much of the laws of 
health and life at tzventyotie as I do j'iovj. — Horace Mann. 



PUBLISHED BY 

THE AMERICAN MANIKlH^^SHfNGTOH* 
Peoria, Illinois, U. S. A, 
1890, 




C} AA^ 3 



QQ 



Copyright, 1890, 
By the American Manikin Co. 



press 

h. s. hill printing co. 

peoria, ill. 



PREFACE. 



It is not the design to offer in this little manual 
a text-book for general use, but simply a hand- 
book which shall be suggestive and helpful to the 
teacher who is using Smith's American Manikin. 
As a ground work for oral lessons, it is believed 
to be sufficient for any school. It has been ar- 
ranged with a view to presenting much informa- 
tion in a compact form. The judgment of the 
teacher must determine how much elaboration is 
desirable and how much or how little of the text 
it is wise to present to his particular school, being 
guided in both decisions by the number, age, and 
advancement of his pupils. As a rule, it is in- 
judicious to ask children to learn many technical 
names, but often the proper name is easier of 
mastery than some senseless circumlocution which 
may be substituted therefor. In order that the 
manual may readily be used in connection with 
any text book on the subject which teachers wish 



viii Preface. 

to consult, an effort has been made to allude to 
conflicting statements of good authorities, and to 
indicate the different names which any one part 
of the body is likely to receive in any elementary 
physiology. For example: The medulla oblon- 
gata, is by some considered a part of the brain, 
while others treat it as a part of the spinal cord; 
and the under layer of the skin is spoken of as 
true skin, cutis, cutis vera, corium, and dermis. 
For such illustrations as a manikin cannot afford, 
parts of an animal may usually be obtained from 
a butcher. If that is inconvenient, a chicken will 
furnish examples of many of the bones and ten- 
dons, of the spinal cord, and of some of the 
organs. 

Whatever suggestion has been offered, either 
in the text or preface, has been offered in the 
kindliest feeling, and will, we hope, be received 
in a like spirit. 

The effects of alcohol and narcotics have been 
considered in connection with each division of the 
subject treated, because it is believed that the 
teaching in regard to any particular group of 
organs will be more impressive while their struc- 
ture and functions are fresh in the mind of the 



Preface, ix 

pupil. A brief summary and some additional 
matter of a general character will be found at the 
end of the volume. An attempt has been made 
to deal fairly with the subjects, and while the 
facts have not been softened, no merely sensa- 
tional statement has been admitted. 

The publishers are indebted to Principals W. 
C. Barnhart, C. R. Vandervort, J. A. Mercer, 
H. L. Grant and Hester Crawley, of the Peoria 
schools, for suggestions and criticisms upon por- 
tions of this work; likewise, to Ada L. Parsons, 
of the High School at Dixon, 111., for suggestions 
as to its plan and scope. 

The American" Manikin Co. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



REGIONAL CHARTS. 

PAGE. 

Object of the Regional Charts — Cavities of the Head 
and Trunk — Use of Parts — Analytical Form — 
Suggestions for Illustrating the Workings of Im- 
portant Organs — Physical Exercises — Further 
Instruction from Regional Charts — Regional 
Chart No. 2- — Definitions — Anatomy — Phys- 
iology — Hygiene 9 

MUSCLES. 

The Manikin — Definition of Muscle — Structure and 
Appearance — Position — Attachment — Shape — 
Peculiar Power — Kinds as to Will — Flexor and 
Extensor — Effect of Air and Exercise on Mus- 
cles — Effects of Alcohol — Suggestive Experi- 
ment — A Few Principal Muscles 14 

THE HUMAN SKELETON. 

Number — Composition — Shape — Structure — Joints 
— Kinds of Joints — Suggestion for Illustrations 
— Outline — Bones of the Head — Of the Skull 



xii Table of Contents. 



— Of the Face — Bones of the Trunk — Spine — 
Ribs — Pelvic Bones — Bones of the Upper Ex- 
tremities — Bones of the Lower Extremities — 
Suggestion — Sprains — Dislocations and Broken 
Bones 20 

CIRCULATION. 

Definition of Circulation — Organs — The Heart — 
Arteries, Capillaries and Veins — Kinds of Cir- 
culation — Course of Circulation — The Pulse — 
Severed Arteries and Veins — Faintness — Effects 
of Alcohol — Effects of Tobacco — Outline 30 

ABSORBENTS. 

Absorbents (lymphatics) and Lymph — Lymphatics 
Classified — General — Of the Lungs — Of the 
Skin — Of the Digestive System 38 

RESPIRATION. 

The Lung Cavity and Its Expansion — Organs of 
Respiration and Voice — The Pleura — Function 
of the Lungs — Hygiene of the Respiratory Or- 
gans — Ventilation — Effects of Alcohol — Effects 
of Tobacco — Outline 41 

DIGESTION. 

Definition of Digestion and of Assimilation — Kinds 
of Eood Necessary — Table of Principal Nitro- 
genous Foods — Table of the Principal Non- 
nitrogenous Foods — Principal Mineral Foods — 



Swifts American Manikin. xiii 



Alimentary Canal — Mouth — Pharynx— Oesoph- 
agus — Stomach and Pylorus — Pancreas — 
Liver — Small Intestine — Large Intestine — 
Process of Digestion — Hygiene of Digestive 
Organs — Clothing — Time of Eating — Masti- 
cation — Quantity and Quality of Food — Condi- 
ments — Tea and Coffee — Effects of Alcohol — 
Of Tobacco — Outline 47 

NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

What the Nervous System is — Kinds of Matter — 
Divisions of Nervous System — Structure of the 
Brain — Hemispheres — The Coverings of the 
Brain — Cerebrum — Cerebellum — Medulla Ob- 
longata — Spinal Cord — Nerves — Cranial Nerves 

— Spinal Nerves — Sympathetic Nervous System 

— Reflex Action — Hygiene of Nervous System 

— Alcohol and the Nervous System — Tobacco 
and the Nervous System — Outline 61 

SPECIAL SENSES. 

Touch — Taste — Process of Tasting — Orga?i of 
Smell — Process of Smelling — Care of the Sense 
of Smell — Hearing — External Ear — Middle 
Ear — Internal Ear — Process of Hearing — Care 
of the Ear — Sight — Protection of the Eve — 
Suggestive Experiment — The Tear Glands — 
Outer Coat of the Eye — Second Coat — Third 
Coat — Interior of the Eye — Adjustment of the 
Eye — Care of the Sense of Sight 74 



xiv Table of Contents. 



THE SKIN. 



Structure of the Cuticle — Structure and Functions 

of the Cutis — Hair and Nails — Hygiene of Skin 85 

ALCOHOL AND OTHER NARCOTICS. 

Introduction — What a Narcotic is — Opium — Chloral 
— Cocaine — Tobacco — Alcohol — Summary of 
the Effects of Alcohol upon the Important Or- 
gans of the Body 87 



DIRECTIONS 

FOR THE CARE OF SMITH'S AMERICAN MANIKIN. 



READ CAREFULLY. 

Observe everything attached to the Manikin before taking it from the box. Re- 
move the pieces of the pedestal and put them together. Then take out the Manikin 
and observe in the left foot a hole into which the short upright piece of steei in the 
pedestal should be placed, which will sustain the figure in an upright position. Read 
carefullv the following directions before commencing to dissect it. 

Beginning with the head, the dissecting parts should be slightly raised and re- 
volved to the right until the slot is in a horizontal position when the parts can be 
readily removed. In making the dissection of the other parts, with one hand above 
and the other hand at the bottom of each piece, press gently against, and upwards; 
the piece can then be raised from its fastenings. The trunk may be dissected bv 
first taking off the deltoid muscle at the shoulder; then the pectoralis major ancl 
external oblique muscles. The external walls of the trunk can now be removed, 
exposing the contents of the chest and abdomen. 

Remove the internal organs in the following order: Lungs, heart, diaphragm, 
liver, intestines, pancreas and spleen. 

Then remove the piece representing upon it the large blood vessels, kidneys, 
bladder, etc. '1 his will bring to view the mesenteric glands, thoracic duct, etc., 
which being taken away shows the skeleton. 

The extremities can now be easily dissected, but before doing so, look very 
carefully at the relations of the muscles of the arm, the brachialis internus, 
coraco-brachialis, and the triceps extensor cubit i. Notice how thev are put together, 
so you will make no mistake in putting them on again. 

" When you wish to put the Manikin together put on the pieces in a reverse order 
from that in which they were taken off. The hooks, or fastenings, have a letter 
marked upon the base or ground work near them, and on each of the dissected parts 
near the holes is the letter to correspond with the hook to which it is to be attached. 
By observing this you need not get any piece out of place. The order in which the 
pieces are to be placed upon the body is numbered upon the back of each piece from 
i upwards to the last. 

The names of all the prominent parts are printed thereon. 

Some of the organs are shown in several views (such as the liver, stomach, 
etc.), which are explained on each view. 

There are also distinct parts shown on the back of some of the larger pieces, 
such as the eye, ear, sympathetic nervous system, systemic circulation, etc. 

This Manikin can be used in connection with any book on phvsiologv. It 
needs no special work to explain it; it is a book of itself. 

THE CABINET 

•Can be fastened to the wall with the four large screws enclosed. 

Attach in an upright position, so that the door will open to the right. When 
the Cabinet is opened the Manikin can be removed, exhibiting the Regional Charts 
for convenient use in teaching a class. 

THE AMERICAN MANIKIN CO., 

PEORIA, ILLINOIS. 



i 



CHART NO. 1. 



©b-ectof ^e re gi° na l chart is a unique and 
Regional most effective way of giving a gen- 
eral idea of the great divisions of the 
human body. Set the charts up before the pu- 
pils and, taking the front view, or Chart i, see 
that they thoroughly learn the great divisions, 
head, trunk, upper extremities and lower ex- 
tremities, as indicated: 

f Head. 
! Trunk. 

j Upper. 



Body 



) 



Extremities ^ 

I Lower. 



Cavities of 



When this is known and the children 
Head and can point out on the chart the regions 

Trunk. x 11 

named, explain that the head is the 
cephalic region and that in the trunk are two 
cavities, the thoracic and abdominal. Add these 
to the analytical form. Simple divisions of the 
extremities may be given and added in the same 
way. 

1 



10 Teachers" Hand Booh. 



For young children, this may be as 

Use of Parts. J .... i . 1 

minute a division as can be wisely 
used, but any child old enough to attend school, 
can learn that the head cavity contains the brain, 
for thinking; the thoracic cavity, the lungs for 
breathing, and the heart for making the blood 
circulate; and the abdominal cavity, the stomach 
and intestines, for digesting and taking up the food 
prepared for use in the body. He can understand 
that the arm is for reaching, the elbow for bend- 
ing, and the hand for grasping; that the leg is 
for walking and the knee for bending. The 
analytical form will then stand: 



Smith's American Manikin. 



11 



Head 

(Cephalic region, 



i \ 



Brain, for thinking. 
f Lungs, 



Trunk , 



Body J 



v Extremities.- 



for breath - 



Chest . . 

(Thoracic 
region.; 



j Heart, for circulat- 
I ing blood. 



Abdomen . 

(Abdominal 
region.) 



Separated by a par- 
tition (diaphragm.) 
C Stomach, for digest- 
ing food. 

X Intestines, for di- 

i 7 

gesting and ab- 
I sorbing food. 
C Arm, for reaching. 
Elbow, for bending. 
Upper.... J Fore-arm,f or reach- 
ing. 
Hand, for grasping. 
Thigh.... f 
Knee, for 
bending . . j 



U 



ower . , 



fCalf. | 

t j k 1 e, ' 

Le ?i for 
j bend 

^ Foot 



For 

walk- 
ing:. 



12 Teachers' Hand Book. 



[Bo Not Hurry v] 
A great number of exercises may be 

Suggestions o J 

illustrating given from the knowledge thus far 

Workings of . 1 - mitt 

important gained. Have the pupils think of 
something and tell them their brains 
were at work, though they could not feel 
it. Have them place their hands upon their sides 
and inhale deeply and exhale, a few times. Then 
teach them that it is the lungs at work that 
causes the motion felt. Draw from them the fact 
that the beating of the heart can be felt if one 
runs or is frightened, and then tell them that if 
they listen with the ear on the chest of another 
person they can hear the heart at work and 
slightly feel it, too. Take the subject of the 
stomach in the same way and point out and have 
them learn that the working of the brain and 
stomach (thinking and digesting) can neither be 
felt nor heard, while that of the lungs and heart 
(breathing and circulation) can be both felt and 
heard. Resemblances and differences of the 
upper and lower extremities as to use, direction 
of motion, etc., may be traced. 

Physical H the air is pure — and it ought to be 

Exercises. — ^ e inflation of the lungs spoken 
of may be made, incidentally, a good physical 



Smith? s American Manikin. 13 



exercise. After the pupils have learned the re- 
gional names, another profitable exercise would 
be to have them, while standing, touch upon their 
own bodies and name the various regions as each 
is indicated upon the chart by the teacher or by 
some pupil. 

Further Older children can with benefit learn 

instruction foe names of the more minute divisions 

from Regional 

charts. upon the chart. A written spelling 

lesson is a good way to insure correctness of 
names and avoid ridiculous mistakes. This might 
be required in analytical form and thus exact 
further accurate knowledge. If there is time, at- 
tention may be called to why the parts received 
their names, as, cervical, from cervix, the Latin 
word for neck. 



CHART NO. 2. 



Excepting the regional divisions of the trunk, 
this chart is but a review of No. i. The teacher 
should carefully impress the fact that, unlike the 
trunk regions of No. i, these divisions have refer- 
ence to position only, and do not apply to internal 
cavities. 

DEFINITIONS. 

Before taking up any particular part of the 
study, have the terms Anatomy, Physiology and 
Hygiene well understood. 

Human Anatomy — Teaches the structure 
and location of the parts of the human body. 

Physiology — Teaches the function or use of 
each part of the body. 

Hygiene — Teaches the laws of health. 

MUSCLES. 

Set up the Manikin and call attention to the 
fact that the two sides are not alike; and explain 
that on the left side, the superficial fascia and 
veins are shown, and on the right, the muscles. 



Smithes American Manikin. 15 



Definition. — Muscles are lean meat. Beef- 
steak is a familiar example. 

structure and The muscles are red (see the Mani- 
Appearance. Yn\) because blood circulates through 
them. Those that show upon the Manikin are 
striped (striated), because they are composed of 
fibers. Each fiber is surrounded by connective 
tissue — thin skin the children would probably 
call it — then the tissue unites several fibers to- 
gether in a bundle and many bundles together, 
and surrounds all, so forming a muscle. When 
a piece of meat is cooked, one can sometimes 
separate the fibers, because the connective tissue 
which holds them together, is broken. Some 
muscles do not appear striped, but these are in- 
side of the bod) 7 and most of them line cavities. 
Position. — The external muscles of the body 
are in layers, the larger ones nearest the surface. 

Muscles for moving the body are at- 

Attachment. , , J , , J , . . 

tached to bones by strong, inelastic 
cords or bands called tendons. They may be 
easily seen in the leg of a fowl after the meat, or 
muscle, has been taken off. The tendons of 
muscles leading to the hand can be readily seen 
on the Manikin. The tendons of the wrist, ankle, 



16 Teachers'' Hand Booh, 



inside of elbow and underside of knee can be 
easily felt on the body. Emphasize the fact 
that if the tendons were not inelastic the bone 
would not be moved, for when the muscle con- 
tracted the tendon would stretch. The tendon 
of Achilles is the largest and strongest tendon of 
the body. It is the tendon of two muscles in 
the calf of the leg, attaches to the under side of 
the heel bone, and its use is to raise the heel. 

Muscles are of different shapes (see 
Manikin) according to their use. 
Those about the head and trunk are usually flat- 
tened, while those of the extremities are rounder 
and larger. The occi-pito-frontalis (plate 32) 
whose contraction raises the eye-brows and moves 
the skin of the head, or the masseter (plate 32) 
which brings the teeth together in biting, will il- 
lustrate flat muscles. Examples of round mus- 
cles are given under next topic. 

Peculiar The peculiar property of muscles is 

Property of . , . . 

Muscles. their power or contraction, that is, 
the muscle becomes shorter and thicker; but no 
muscle can move until directed by the nerves that 
govern it. Have the pupils grasp, each the front 
of his arm where the muscle marked biceps is 



SmitJCs American Manikin. Vl 



found on the Manikin, and then bend the arm, 
noticing how much thicker and shorter the mus- 
cle grows. Then have them straighten the arm 
and note the change. Repeat the exercise with 
the hand on the back of the arm, where the mus- 
cle marked triceps is found upon the Manikin, 
and explain that all but twelve (12) of the five 
hundred (500) muscles of the human body are 
arranged in pairs, each producing just the op- 
posite effect of that produced by the other, so 
that, as they contract and relax alternately, the 
part to which they are attached is moved forward 
and back. They are said to antagonize. 
Toiuntary and As to will, muscles are of two kinds, 
involuntary, voluntary and involuntary. Volun- 
tary muscles are those that we can move or 
keep at rest, as we choose. The biceps and 
triceps are examples. Involuntary muscles work 
whether we think of them or not. We can- 
not stop them even if we wish to. Upon 
them life depends. The heart is an example. 
Point out the wisdom of making the life func- 
tions independent of thought or attention or will. 

Flexor and A Jiexor muscle is used for bending 
Extensor. anc j an ex f ensor muscle for extending 

or straightening the part to which it is attached. 



18 Teachers' Hand Book. 



Effects of Air Plenty of fresh air and exercise are 

and Exercise 

upon Muscles, necessary to keep muscles healthy and 
strong. By disuse they grow weak and flabby. 
Violent or too long-continued exercise, however, 
is harmful. Walking, running and various 
out-door games are beneficial. 
Effects of All intoxicating drinks contain the 
Alcohol. poison called alcohol. It is harmful 

to every part of the body.'^It hardens and dries 
the muscles, and tends to produce fat where fat 
has no business to be, and so makes the muscle 
less able to contract and do its natural work. A 
drinker may look strong and well, especially if 
he drinks beer, but it is because of the unnatural 
deposit of fat. Besides, the organs become 
clogged with superfluous fat, particularly the 
heart, which is only a hollow muscle. It finally 
.has neither room nor strength to perform its 
work and must stop. That means death. 

Put a piece of lean meat or the body 

Suggestion. . . . 

or a worm into some alcohol in a 
glass vessel and cork well. After a few days the 
alcohol will have grown cloudy, showing that it 
is extracting the^juices of the tissues. When the 
juices are well out, try to cut the specimen and 
notice how hard and tough the fibers have be- 



Smithes American Manikin. 19 



come. The tissues of the body suffer the same 
change when subjected to the action of alcohol. 

A Fez-: Principal Muscles. 

The Masseter — 

Is on the side of the jaw and brings the teeth together. 

The Trapezius — 

Is on the tipper portion of the back and shoulder, and 
draws the shoulder backward and upward and helps 
to expand the chest cavity in inspiration. 

The Deltoid — 

Is on the shoulder and raises the arm. 

The Biceps — 

Is on the front of the arm and bends the forearm up- 
ward. 
The Triceps — 

Is on the back of the arm and straightens or extends 
the forearm. 
The Ixtercostals — 

External — Are between the ribs and are the princi- 
pal muscles for enlarging the chest cavity laterally, 
in inspiration. 
Internal^ (under External) — Are between the ribs 
and are the principal muscles for diminishing the 
chest cavity laterally in expiration. 
The Pectoralis — 

Major — Is on the breast and is used to draw the arm 
to the side or across the chest, and agists in inspira- 
tion. 



20 Teachers' 1 Hand Book. 



Minor — Is under the pectoralis major and assists in 
inspiration. 
The Oblique — 

External — Is on the front of the trunk and assists in 

expiration and in bending the body. 
Internal — Is under the external oblique and has the 
same use. 
The Rectus — 

Assists in bending the body and in expiration. 
The Sartorius — 

Is on the front of thigh. It draws one leg over the 
other (tailor's position when sewing.) 
The Rectus Femoris — 

Is on the front of the thigh and extends the leg. 
The Biceps Femoris — 

Is on the back of the thigh and bends the knee. It an- 
tagonizes the Rectus Femoris. 
The Gastrocnemius — 

Is on the back of the leg and raises the heel. It is 

one of the muscles whose tendons unite to form the 

tendon of Achilles. 

Suggestion. — Many physical exercises may be 

performed, illustrating the use of muscles learned. 

THE HUMAN SKELETON. 

The bones of the skeleton preserve the shape 
of the body and enable the muscle^ to move it 
and they form cavities for protection of delicate 
organs. 



Smith? s American Manikin. 21 



Number. — There are in the skeleton of an adult, 
about 206 bones, exclusive of the teeth. In child- 
hood the number is greater and in old age less, 
because some bones that in youth are separate 
become united in later life. 

Corn-position. — Bones are composed of animal 
and mineral matter. Animal matter gives 
elasticity to bone. Mineral matter confers 
strength but tends to make the bone brittle. In 
children's bones, animal matter predominates, 
and, in consequence, they are tough, not easily 
broken, and when broken heal readily. As one 
advances in years, the proportion of mineral mat- 
ter becomes greater; therefore the bones of an 
adult are strong but those of an old person are 
brittle. 

Shape. — Bones are, in general, long, short, or 
flat. Long bones are hollow shafts enlarged at 
the ends and are found in the upper and lower 
extremities (see Manikin). Short bones give 
strength and compactness. Bones of the wrist 
and ankle are examples. Flat bones are used to 
cover cavities and protect delicate organs. The 
hip-bone (innominatmn) and shoulder-blade 
(scapula) are examples. 

Structure. — All bones are covered by a stout 



22 'Teachers' Hand Book. 



membrane (periosteum) except at the joints, 
where cartilage takes its place. The periosteum 
nourishes the bone. The outer layer of a bone 
is hard and compact, but it grows more and 
more spongy towards the center. The circula- 
tion of blood through a bone is accomplished by 
means of canals (haversian) which connect with 
the blood vessels of the periosteum. These 
canals, in turn, supply tiny tubes (canaliculi) and 
cavities (lacunce) throughout the bone. The mid- 
dle of long bones is filled with marrow which also 
receives its blood supply from these canals. By 
this means the bones are constantly changed and 
nourished, and, if broken, are repaired. 

Joints. — A joint is the junction, or articulation 
of two or more bones. Bones become larger at 
the part where they are to form a joint (see 
Manikin) to afford room for the attachment of 
ligaments and the tendons of muscles. They 
also become more spongy in structure — which 
serves to break the force of a jar or shock. The 
parts that form the joint are each covered with 
cartilage, and between them is a thin membran- 
ous sack without an opening {synovial mem- 
brane) which secretes, upon its inner surface, a 
fluid like the white of an egg, to prevent friction 



Smithes American Manikin. 23 



when the joint is used. The bones forming a 
joint are securely fastened together by strong, 
white, shining bands, called ligaments. 

Kinds — Most joints are either ball and socket 
or hinge joints. A ball and socket joint has a 
rotary motion. The hip joint and shoulder joint 
are examples. A hinge joint has only a back- 
ward and forward motion. The elbow is an ex- 
ample. 

suggestion for K they can be obtained, it is well 
illustration. w hen beginning the study of bones, 
to get an old, dry bone and a fresh one — the lat- 
ter a part of a long bone, with a joint end on it. 
With these may be illustrated the difference be- 
tween a dead bone and a living one, the actual 
bone tissue, the structure — except of microscopic 
canals, etc. — the periosteum, cartilage, attach- 
ment of ligaments and tendons, and the marrow. 
The bones of the body may be classified : 



24 



Teachers" Hand Book, 



Cranium . , 
( 8 bones.) 



Head 

(28 bones.) 



\ Face. 



Trunk. . . . 
(54 bones.) 



(14 bones.) 



f Frontal. 

Two Parietal. 
j Two Temporal. 
I Sphenoid. 
I Ethmoid. 
^ Occipital. 

Two Superior Maxillary (up- 
per jaw.) 

Inferior Maxillary (lower jaw.) 

Two Malar (cheek.) 

Two Lachrymal. 

Two Turbinated. 

Two Nasal. 

Vomer (between the nostrils.) 

Two Palate (roof of mouth.) 
(plate 30.) 

! Hammer. 
Anvil. 
Stirrup. 

Some count four bones in each ear, but the little round bone 
(os orbicularis) is joined immovably to the stirrup after the 
first few years of life. 

f Seven Cervical (neck) Verte- 
brae. 

Twelve Dorsal (back) Verte- 
brae. 

Five Lumbar (loins) Verte- 
brae. 



Spinal 

Column j 

(24) I 



! Seven pairs True. 
Three pairs False. 
Two pairs Floating. 
Sternum (breast bone. ) 
Os Hyoides (at the root of the tongue.) 

( Two Innominata. 
Pelvis ....•< Sacrum. 



Ribs 

(H) 



(4) 



Coccyx. 



Smithes American Manikin, 



25 



r Upper . . 

(64) 



Extremities \ 
(124 bones.) 



fEach (Clavicle. 

Shoulder | Scapula. 

['Humerus. 
Each Arm-j Radius. 
i.Ulna. 

Eight Carpal 

( wrist. ) 

Five Metacarpal 

(palm.) 

FourteenPhalanges 
(finger bones.) 

f Femur (thigh.) 

EachLeg.J Patella ( knee O 
1 Tibia. 



Each Hand { 



Lower . 
(60) 



Fibula. 



I Each Foot. 



Seven Tarsal 

(ankle.) 

Five Metatarsal(be- 

tween the tarsal 

bones and the 

toes.) 

| FourteenPhalanges 

(toe bones.) 



It is a good plan to place upon the board the 
names of the bones, as they are learned and 
located upon the Manikin, so that when the sub- 

2 



2(3 Teachers* Hand Book. 



ject has been gone over once, the analysis will 
be complete. 

Beginning with the great divisions suggested, 
we pass to the consideration of the first — the 
head. 

Bones of skuii The skull is composed, in thickness, 
and race. Q f th ree layers, the middle one of 

which is spongy bone (see Manikin — diftloe). 
The edges of the bones of the head form irregular 
joints called sutures (see Manikin). The skull 
and face, together, form a safe cavity for the 
brain, and the organs of sight, hearing, smell and 
taste. 

Bones of The bones of the trunk are the spine, 
Trunk. ribs, hip-bones {innominatd) , sacrum 

and coccyx. 

Bones of The spine is composed of twenty- 
spine. f our sma ji bones {vertebrae) in the 

back part of which is a canal for the spinal 
cord. There are pads of cartilage between the 
bones to prevent jar. The double curve of 
the spine serves the same purpose, and the brain 
is thus preserved from shock. On the top of the 
first vertebra, are two little hollows, into which 
fit corresponding projections of the skull, thus 



Smith? s American Manikin. 27 



enabling the head to move backward and for- 
ward. The second vertebra has a projection on 
the top, that goes through a hole in the first, 
thus allowing the head to turn, as on a pivot. 

There are twelve pairs of ribs fas- 

Til© Ril>8. 

tened, by true joints, one to either 
side of each dorsal vertebra. In front, the first 
seven pairs (true ribs) are attached to the breast- 
bone (sternum), each by a cartilage of its own. 
The next three pairs (false ribs) are joined, by 
cartilage, to each other and then to the cartilage 
of the seventh pair. The last two pairs (float- 
ing ribs) are not attached in front. 

Bones of the The hip-bones (innominata) are two 
Pelvis. large flat bones that, together with 

the sacrum, form a basin-shaped cavity (-pelvis). 
The sacrum is wedged between the hip-bones at 
the back and affords solid support for the spinal 
column. 

The shoulder-blade (scai)irtci) is a 

Bones of the v 1 f y 

upper thin, flat bone on the back of the 

shoulder. The collar-bone (clavicle) 
is a long, slender bone whose use is to keep 
the shoulder from falling forward. The bone of 
the arm is the humerus, the head of which fits 



28 Teachers'" Hand Book, 



i nto a socket at the shoulder. This shallow ball 
and socket joint allows great freedom of motion, 
but is easily dislocated. The small bone of the 
forearm (ulna) makes most of the joint at the 
elbow, while the large one (radius) makes most 
of the joint at the wrist. By a peculiar relation 
of these bones, the radius can roll across the ulna, 
thus giving the turning motion of the forearm. 
The wrist has two rows of bones (carpal), one 
row of which articulates with the forearm and the 
other with the palm bones (metacarpal). Be- 
yond the palm, are the bones of the fingers and 
thumb (phalanges). The first bone of the thumb 
is set in a notch in one of the carpal bones, thus 
giving the thumb freedom to touch each finger. 

The thigh bone ( femur) is the long- 
Bones of the & KJ J n 
Lower est in the human body and forms, 

x remi les. w ^ ^q hip-bone, a, ball and socket 
joint that is the deepest and strongest in the body. 
Below the knee, the leg has two bones, the 
largest of which (tibia) forms the joint at both 
knee and ankle. The smaller (fibula) acts only 
as a stay to strengthen the limb. Over the knee, 
is the little bone called patella. It is situated in 
the single tendon of three muscles (sesamoid 
bone) and affords great force and freedom of 



Smith? s American Manikin. 29 



action. The bones of the foot are much like 
those of the hand. The irregular bones of the 
ankle and instep are arranged to give grace and 
strength. The metatarsal bones of the foot cor- 
respond to the metacarpal bones of the hand, 
and the phalanges of the toes are nearly like those 
of the fingers. 

A good exercise is to have pupils compare the 
bones and joints of the upper and lower extremi- 
ties. 

sprains and Sprains are violent wrenchings or 
Dislocations, twistings of ligaments, tendons and 
tissues about a joint and are often more tedious 
in mending than are broken bones. A sprain is 
attended with pain, swelling and possibly by in- 
flammation. As soon as a sprain occurs, take all 
weight off of the part. If it is an extremity, do 
not let it hang down. Rest is necessary to the 
recovery from a sprain. Sprains are treated with 
either hot or cold applications. An excellent 
treatment is to make two soft muslin bags large 
enough to cover well the joint affected, and fill 
each loosely with hops. If hops are not easily 
obtained, prepare two moderately thick, soft 
compresses. Wring one of the bags or com- 
presses out of a mixture of salt and vinegar as 



30 Teachers'* Hand Book, 



hot as the patient can bear. Put it upon the 
sprained part and cover with a folded dry cloth, 
and over all put a large flannel. When that bag- 
is cool, wring the other out in the same way and 
substitute it for the first. Have the second ready 
before removing the first. This treatment should 
be continued for two days or until all danger of 
inflammation is passed. Then keep the part 
quiet and warm. 

Dislocations are the same as sprains except 
that, in addition, the bone is displaced. Beside 
the symptoms of a sprain, a dislocation will us- 
ually show a knot at the displaced joint, and the 
part cannot be moved. Dislocations are liable to 
be serious and should, if possible, be reduced by 
a surgeon. 

If a bone is broken, make the patient as easy 
as possible, by relieving the part of all strain and 
propping it with pillows, and send for a doctor. 

CIRCULATION, 

Blood is a thin, colorless liquid {-plasma) in 
which float a few white and an infinite number 
of red discs. Hence the blood looks red. Blood 
contains everything required to build up all parts 
of the body. 



Smith? s American Manikin. 31 



Circulation is the flow of the blood to and from 
all parts of the body, and its object is to supply 
nourishment and carry off waste. It ought never 
to be impeded by tight bands or ligatures, such 
as close, stiff collars, garters, etc. The neck, 
especially, should be loosely clothed. 

(Remove plate 26.) The organs of 

Organs. \ , . V , J , & 

circulation are the heart, arteries, 
capillaries and veins (see Manikin). 

The heart is a hollow, muscular or- 

The Heart. 

gan that propels the blood through 
the body. It is situated in the chest cavity be- 
tween the lungs, and slants from right to left. 
The heart cavity is lined with a serous mem- 
brane called the -pericardium. The heart is 
divided into right and left sides by a partition 
(septum^) through which there is no opening. 
The right side circulates only impure (venous) 
blood and the left only pure (arterial) blood. 
The right side contains the right auricle above 
and the right ventricle below with the tri- 
cuspid valve between them. The left side con- 
tains the left auricle above and left ventricle be- 
low with the bicuspid valve between them. The 
walls of the left ventricle are much thicker than 
those of the right (see plates 20 and 21.) 



32 Teachers* Hand Boole. 



Arteries, capillaries and veins are 
capillaries tubes for carrying blood. Arteries 

carry blood from the heart, and 
veins carry blood to the heart. Arteries, with 
one exception (pulmonary) carry pure blood. 
Veins (except the pulmonary veins) carry im- 
pure blood. Capillaries are exceedingly small 
tubes that connect the arterial system with 
the venous system. In the capillaries of the body, 
the blood is changed from pure to impure, and in 
the capillaries of the lungs from impure to pure. 

Kinds of Circulation is of threekinds, pulmonic, 
circulation. S y ste mic and portal. (Plate 26.) 

Pulmonic — Impure blood is sent from the 
right side of the heart to the lungs, purified, and 
sent back to the left side of the heart. 

Systemic — Pure blood is sent from the left 
side cf the heart through the body, changed to 
impure in the capillaries and returned to the 
right side of the heart. 

Portal — (See plates 12, 13, 18.) Blood from 
the stomach, pancreas, spleen and intestine flows 
through the portal vein into the liver. After cir- 
culating through the capillaries of the liver, it 
flows into the vena cava inferior, where it unites 



Smith? s American Manikin. 33 



with the systemic circulation and is carried to 
the right auricle of the heart. 

course of After studying thus far, have the 
circulation. c } ass learn the course of circulation 
as follows: Impure blood from all parts of 
the body flows into the right auricle of the 
heart through two veins (see plate 12), vena 
cava inferior, bringing blood from the lower 
parts of the body, and vena cava superior, 
bringing blood from head, shoulders and arms. 
The auricle contracts and sends the blood through 
the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle. This 
contracts and forces the blood into the pulmonary 
artery, which divides and carries it to the lungs. 
It circulates through the capillaries of the lungs 
and becomes pure, by giving up its impurities to 
the air and taking oxygen from it, and flows 
back through the pulmonary veins to the left aur- 
icle of the heart. By contraction of the left aur- 
icle, the blood is sent through the bicuspid valve 
into the left ventricle. This contracts and forces 
it into the great aorta, the largest artery in the 
body (see plate 12), which, dividing and sub- 
dividing, takes it to all parts of the body. After 
being distributed by the arteries, changed to im- 
pure blood in the capillaries, and gathered up by 



34 Teachers' Hand Book, 



the veins and poured into the venae cavae superior 
and inferior, it is emptied into the right auricle 
of the heart, where it begins the circuit again. 
The portal circulation empties into the vena cava 
inferior. Circulation to the tissues of heart 
itself is accomplished through the coronary ar- 
tery and veins. At no time does the blood come 
into direct contact with the air. The exchange 
of impurities for oxygen is effected through the 
delicate membrane of the air-cells. 

The impulse given to the blood in the 

Pulse - • \ i • c ^ 

arteries by the contraction or the ven- 
tricles is called the pulse. It is usually felt at the 
wrist (radial artery), but may be felt wherever 
an artery comes near the surface. Seventy-two 
pulse-beats in one minute is the usual number for 
an adult. 

The large artery of the arm starts 

Course of the & f 

i-arge from the under side of the arm at the 

Arteries 

body, runs a course slanting slightly 
outward to the elbow. There it divides and one 
branch follows the radial and the other the ulnar 
side of the forearm to the wrist. After that the 
divisions are too small to be very dangerous if 
cut. The large arteries of the lower extremities 



Smith's A meri can Manikin. 35 



and the superficial veins of both upper and lower 
extremities should be traced from the Manikin. 

If an artery is cut, the blood flows in 

Severed ... 

Arteries and jets or impulses, while from a cut vein 
the flow is regular. Cut arteries are 
much the more dangerous; therefore, arteries are 
generally near the bone and protected by the 
muscles. If an artery is cut, tie two diagonal 
corners of a handkerchief together and place the 
knot over the artery, two or three inches from 
the cut and nearer the heart. Then put a stick 
under the handkerchief on the side opposite to 
the knot and twist until bleeding stops. Then 
send for a doctor, who will tie the artery. If *a 
large vein is cut, tie a bandage farther from the 
heart than the cut is. 

If one faints, lay him flat on his back 

to give the blood free flow to the 

head. Give him fresh air and loosen the clothing 

about his neck. Camphor, or something of the 

kind, held to his nose will assist to restore him. 

Effects of Alcohol has a marked effect upon 
Aiconoi. t he circulation. The word intoxica- 

tion is derived from the Greek word meaning 
poison. The redness of face, and especially the 



36 Teachers'* Hand Book. 



enlarged capillaries of the nose of an alcohol 
drinker, is proof that alcohol paralyzes the nerves 
that govern circulation, and so produces perma- 
nent congestion or engorgement of blood vessels. 
This is true of the capillaries not only of the face, 
but of the lungs, heart and all other organs of the 
body, as well. Professor Palmer quotes several 
eminent authorities, among them Professor Mar- 
tin, of Johns Hopkins, to the effect that the direct 
action of alcohol upon the heart is paralyzing, and 
not stimulating. " It is true that alcohol often 
stimulates the frequency of the heart's action 
but not its force." " The effects of long-continued 
use of alcoholics upon the heart are similar to 
those upon the body at large. Whether taken 
in the form of* beer, wine or spirits, the general 
effect is, lowering of vitality, degeneration of 
structure and diminution of power.'' (Palmer's 
Temperance Teachings of Science.) 

Effects of The use of tobacco deranges the heart, 
Tobacco. irritates it and produces palpitation. 

The pulse is a fair indication of the circulation, 
and both alcohol and tobacco render it frequent, 
unsteady and feeble. Cigarette smoking is, if pos- 
sible, more injurious than other forms of tobacco 
smoking. Dr. Hunt's remark with regard to 



Smith? s American Manikin. 



37 



alcohol, applies as well to tobacco. " The foods 
which are adapted to the first twenty-one years 
of life are sufficient for the rest of life." 

Def. of blood. 

Def. of circulation. 

f Auricle. 
Tricuspid 

valve. 
Ventricle. 

f Auricle. 

leftside. , Bic »f d 
1 1 a ^ valve. 

(pure blood.) 

I Ventricle. 

Arteries. 

Capillaries. 

Veins. 



Circula- 
tion. 



\ 



Heart. 



right side. 

(impure blood.) 



Kinds. 

Course. 
Pulse. 



I 

f Pulmonic. 
J Systemic. 
I Portal. 



Emer- ) Cut arteries and veins, 
gencies. j Faintness. 

Alcohol (effects of ) 

Tobacco (effects of) 



38 Teachers* Hand Book, 



ABSORBENTS. 



Where there are blood capillaries there are, 
also, circulatory tubes of another kind and for 
another purpose. These are known as lym- 
phatics or absorbents. Most of them are micro- 
scopic, and the fluid (lymph) which they carry 
is thin and watery, somewhat like the plasma of 
the blood. When small blood vessels are, for 
any reason, compressed, as in muscular action or 
in inflammation, the thin part of the blood oozes 
through the walls to relieve the pressure. This 
matter the lymphatics absorb. They also take up 
waste matter from the wear of tissues, and any 
other substance that can be finely enough divided 
to pass through their walls. Where a bone has 
been broken and healed, it is, at first, larger than 
is natural, but the lymphatics absorb the excess 
of matter. In sickness, when the appetite is 
impaired, or in starvation, the lymphatics absorb 
the fat which has accumulated in various parts 
of the body and put it into the circulation for the 
support of life. 

Lymphatics always empty into the venous 
circulation. Their walls are thin and delicate, 
for the contents must be absorbed through them. 
All lymphatics *pass through small pinkish bodies 



Smith's American Manikin. 39 



(lymphatic glands), which are supposed to add 
white discs to the lymph, and to renovate it for 
further use in the body. 

For convenience, lymphatics may be classified 
as follows: 

( General lymphatics of the body. 

Lymphatics. J ° f the lun S s - 
1 Of the skin. 

I Of the digestive system (lacteals.) 

General General lymphatics are those that 

lymphatics, possess only the function already de- 
scribed. The) 7 have been discovered in almost 
every part of the body where blood capillaries 
are found and are believed to exist in all such 
places. 

lymphatics of The lymphatics of the lungs take 
the Lungs. j nto fo Q system whatever comes into 
contact with them. They will readily absorb 
the minute scales from scarlet fever, the nicotine 
from tobacco, etc. Man is free to present health- 
ful or harmful substances to them and take the 
consequence. 

lymphatics The lymphatics of the skin open on 
of the skin, ^he under side of the cuticle, and, 
like those of the lungs, are meant to assist in 



40 Teachers'' Hand Book, 



purifying the blood by absorbing oxygen, but 
they also will take what is presented, good or 
bad. Enough .nourishment will be taken up 
through the lymphatics of the skin to support 
life for a time. In the same way, thirst may be 
quenched by drenching the clothing with water. 
Vaccination consists in putting virus under the 
cuticle to be absorbed by the lymphatics. Per- 
sons have been poisoned by handling poisonous 
articles, but the lymphatics of the skin will only 
take what has soaked through the cuticle or has 
been injected under it. If one must handle any- 
thing harmful, he should oil his hands. 
Lymphatics of On the lining of the small intestine, 

the Disrcstivc 

system. there are so many minute projections 

that they give to it a soft, velvety appearance. 
These are villi and each one (villus), beside 
containing little veins for absorption, contains 
also a lymphatic called a lacteal (from lac, meaning 
milk), because their contents (chyle) is milky. 
The function of the lacteals is to absorb the food 
which has been prepared for use in the body. 
This they carry to the chyle receptacle (plate 
n), which is the beginning of the thoracic duct. 
The thoracic duct receives the contents of many 
other lymphatics and empties into the left sub- 



Smithes American Manikin. 41 



clavian vein. This pours its stream into the 
vena cava superior, which empties into the right 
auricle of the heart. 

RESPIRATION. 

The L.ung: Call attention to the thoracic region 

Cavity and its 

Expansion. upon the regional chart, and also, as 
a review, draw from the pupils the names of the 
bones enclosing it, and the names of the organs 
it contains, with the purpose of each. Remove 
plate 26 of the Manikin and show them the 
diaphragm. Tell them this is a muscular parti- 
tion that separates the chest cavity from the 
abdominal cavity, and that when they inspire, 
the muscles on the under side of it contract and 
flatten it, and thus make the chest or lung cavity 
deeper. Follow this by a review of the other 
muscles that enlarge the chest cavity and thus 
aid in inspiration, also, those that diminish 
its size to produce expiration. Have them, 
standing, put their hands on their sides and in- 
hale, and notice that in inspiration the muscles, 
by contracting, make the chest cavity higher and 
wider and deeper and that the air is drawn into 
the lungs, thus expanding them to fill the space. 
Have them notice expiration in the same way, 
3 



42 Teachers' Hand Booh. 



showing that as the muscles diminish the cavity 
in height, breadth and depth, the air is expelled 
or driven out. Tell them that the muscles which 
contract during inspiration are relaxed during 
expiration — the diaphragm returning to the posi- 
tion seen on the Manikin; and that those which 
contract for expiration are relaxed during in- 
spiration. Inspiration and expiration together, 
make respiration. For an adult the average 
number of breaths per minute is about 18. 
organs of The organs of respiration and voice 

Respiration 

and voice. are the larynx, trachea and lungs. 

Point out to the class that the air passes 
through the mouth or the nostrils — one ought 
always to breathe through the nose — into the 
back part of the throat (pharynx), then into the 
larvnx where the vocal cords are, then into the 
windpipe (trachea), (see Manikin.) At the third 
dorsal vertebra, the trachea divides, sending 
branches (bronchi) to the right and left lungs. 
These tubes divide and sub-divide after entering 
the lungs. Call attention to the color of the 
lungs, to the fact that they are situated one on 
either side of the heart; also, that the right lung 
has three lobes and the left has but two. Remove 
the outer part of each lung and notice, first the 



Smithes American Manikin. 43 



divisions shown in the right and then the more 
minute divisions shown in the left, each ending 
in an air-cell. These tubes are represented as 
striped because the trachea and bronchial tubes — 
except the very minute divisions — are stiffened 
by rings of cartilage. 

The Pleura. The lung cavity is lined by a serous 
membrane called the pleura. Inflammation of 
the pleura is called the pleurisy. 

Suggestion. — The vibrations of the vocal cords 
may be illustrated by having each child put his 
finger on the front of his throat, first during quiet 
breathing and then when vocalizing. 

Function of The function of the lungs is to purify 
the icings. t ^ e blood. Impure blood is sent from 
the right side of the heart through the pulmonary 
arteries to the lungs. There it circulates through 
the capillaries, exchanging its impurities for 
oxygen through the fine membrane of the air- 
cells. The impurities are expelled with the 
breath, and the blood, now pure and laden with 
oxygen, is taken by the pulmonary veins to 
the left side of the heart to be sent all over the 
body. 



44 Teachers'* Hand Book, 



HYGIENE OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 

Cold air should never be inhaled through the 
mouth, especially after talking or singing. 
Breathing through the nose warms and purifies 
the air before it reaches the throat or lungs. The 
necessity of fresh air, loose clothing and 
correct position should be emphasized. Unless 
the air is pure it will not contain enough oxygen 
to purify the blood, but will contain what is in- 
jurious. Unless the clothing is loose the lungs 
cannot expand well, and not enough air can enter 
to purify the blood. If the position is not good, 
the lungs and every other organ of the trunk 
will suffer by compression. Whether sitting or 
standing, the trunk should be erect. 
ventilation. Ventilation is an important subject 
and may be impressed by example as well as by 
precept. A very simple way to ventilate a room 
is to put a strip of thin board three or four inches 
wide across the window sill just inside the sash. 
Then raise the sash not higher than the width of 
the strip and ventilation will be accomplished, 
while drafts are avoided. 

Effect of Alcohol diminishes the purification of 

Alcohol. blood in the lungs. "This is proved 

beyond all doubt by the diminished quantity of 



Smith? s American Manikin. 45 



carbonic acid given off in the breath of one who 
has been drinking alcholics. It is well known 
that persons under the influence of liquor perish 
much sooner when exposed to cold." Consump- 
tion is one of the most fatal diseases of the lungs. 
Good food, plenty of proper exercise, warm 
clothing and regular hours are the best pre- 
ventives. "Some years ago an opinion origin- 
ated in this country (it was not received from 
any authority abroad), that the use of alcholics 
tended to prevent consumption. No man is 
higher authority on this subject than Dr. Lebert. 
He emphatically states and reiterates, that the 
free use of alcohol is a cause of consumption. 
In England no names are of higher authority on 
this subject than those of Drs. Williams, Cham- 
bers and Peacock. None of them intimate that 
alcohol prevents consumption, but all state that 
its free use is among the prominent causes of the 
disease." 

The quotations in the last paragraph are from 
Prof. A. B. Palmer's, "The Temperance Teach- 
ings of Science." To the testimony here given, 
Dr. Palmer adds his own, founded upon long and 
varied experience. 



40 Teachers'* Hand Booh. 



Effects of Tobacco smoking is a great injury to 
Tobacco. j-^e lungs. By it, the tissues are 

shriveled and hardened and a greater or less 
deposit of nicotine is made, which finally destroys 
the air-cells, though the lymphatics try indus- 
triously to carry it into the circulation. No 
wonder men die from smoking when they persist 
in tanning the mucous membrane of the lungs, 
through which purification of the o.ood is mainly 
accomplished. All that is said of ordinary forms 
of tobacco smoking is true of cigarette smoking, 
and it should be remembered that, in addition to 
nicotine, cigarettes contain other poisons, as 
opium, arsenic, etc. 



Smith's American Manikin. 



47 



Respiration. \ 



r 


Def. 




Inspira- 
tion. 

i 


Mus- 
cles. 


Trapezius. 

Intercostal, External. 

_> _. ( Major. 
Jrectorahs. ■< _ _. 

i Minor. 

Muscles on under side 

of diaphragm. 


1 

1 


Def. 






Intercostal, Internal. 


Expira- 
\ 


Mus- 


_. .. ( External. 
Oblique. J 

( Internal. 


tion. 


cles. 


Rectus. 

Transverse, (see Man- 




1 


ikin.) 


Organs. < 


^Laryn: 
Trachi 

Lungs 


1 structure and 
j Function. 



f Air, Food, Clothing. 



Hygiene, j Ventilation. 



I 



I Alcohol. 



DIGESTION. 

Definition of Digestion is the process by which 
mseation food is changed into blood. Assimi- 

and of & 

Assimilation, lation is the process by which food 
is prepared for use of the body (that is, turned 



48 



Teachers'* Hand Book. 



into blood) and the proper elements appropriated 
by each part. Some authorities do not make 
assimilation include digestion. 



Organic. J 



Kinds of 
FoodNec- J 

ESSARY. 



Inorganic. 



Nitrogenous, Flesh producing, 
(sometimes called albuminoids, 
also proteids.) 

Non-Nitrogenous, Heat and 
Force producing, 

(sometimes called carbona- 
ceous.) 



f Minerals assist in Digestion and 
Assimilation, also in making 
~) Bone and some of the Tis- 
l sues. 



Nitrogenous foods form flesh and tissues. 

Non-Nitrogenous are of two kinds, fats and 
sugars. Starch belongs with the sugars, because 
it is converted into sugar in the process of di- 



gestion. 



Table of Principal Nitrogenous Foods. 



Principal 

Nitrogenous 

Foods (produce 

flesh and tissue.) 



Albumen — Eggs, Peas, Beans, etc. 
Gluten — Wheat and other cereals, etc. 
Caseine — Milk, Cheese, etc. 
Fibrine — Meat, Fish, Fowl, etc. 
Gelatine — Jelly taken from Bones, etc. 



Smith's American Manikin. 49 



Table of Principal Non-nitrogenous Foods. 

Principal 

Xox-xitroge- Oils and Fats. 

nous Foods J Starch — From Vegetables, Grains, etc. 

(produce heat | Sugars — From Fruits, Cane, etc. 

and force. ) 



Principal Mineral Foods. 



Principal 
Mineral 

Foods (assist in - 
digestion and as- 
similation, etc.. 



vSalt, Iron, Sulphur, Lime, Phos- 
phorus, etc. 



Food articles are classified according to what 
they furnish most abundantly, though most of 
them supply elements of other classes in appre- 
ciable quantities. Milk is the typical food, for it 
contains all elements required by the body, in the 
best form and proportion for use. Minerals are 
usually supplied in sufficient quantities in other 
foods. Salt is needed, however, and sometimes 
other minerals are deficient in the system and 
must be given as medicine. Water is most im- 
portant as an inorganic food. It should be pure 
and fresh. So much water is contained in the 
other food that many do not need often to take 
it alone. Fruits supply a great deal of water, 



50 Teachers* 1 Hand Book, 



beside salts, sugar and acids. They contain very 
little albuminous food. 

The Aiimen- The alimentary or food canal consists 
tary canal. Q f a jj p ar f- s through which food passes 
during digestion; the mouth, pharynx, oesopha- 
gus, stomach, small intestine and large intestine. 
It is lined throughout by mucous membrane 
which secretes moisture and, in various parts, is 
supplied with the glands that produce the differ- 
ent digestive fluids. 

The mouth is furnished with teeth 

The Mouth. 

and with salivary glands, which pour 
saliva into it through ducts. These glands are 
the parotid, just below and in front of the ear (see 
plate 32), the submaxillary, under the side of the 
lower jaw, and the sublingual, under the tongue 
(for last two see plate 30). The parotid is the 
largest and is the one affected in the mumps. 

The pharynx (plate 30) is simply 

The Pharynx. , r i / rAi 

the back part or the throat, lhe 
mouth and the nostrils open into it, the oesophagus 
and the larynx lead out of it. Each ear is also 
connected with it by a tube {Eustachian) (plate 
30 Orf. of E. tube). 



Smith' } s American Manikin. 51 



The The oesophagus (plates 11-12) is 

oesophagus. ^he muscular tube through which 
the food passes from the pharynx to the stomach. 

The stomach The stomach is a kind of sack, 
and pylorus. l ar g e r at one end than at the other 
(plate 15.) The orifice by which food enters the 
stomach is called the cardiac opening. At the 
opening of the stomach into the duodenum there 
is a band of circular muscles which closes the 
opening if unsoftened food tries to pass through. 
This is called the pylorus. The stomach has 
three coats: the outer, tough and strong for 
protection; the middle, muscular; and the inner, a 
mucous membrane containing glands for secret- 
ing gastric juice, whose active principle is pepsin. 
When food is in the stomach, the middle coat, 
whose fibers are arranged in three layers — 
oblique, circular and longitudinal, give to that 
organ a peculiar motion (peristaltic.) The 
oesophagus and intestines also have this motion. 

The pancreas (sweet bread) (plate 

The Pancreas. . / v \ , - 

13) is a long, slender organ lying 
back of the stomach. It secretes pancreatic 
juice, which flows through a duct into the duo- 
denum. 



52 Teachers^ Hand Book. 



The liver is the largest gland in the 

The liiver. 

body (plate 18.) The function of the 
liver is to secrete bile, and to form liver sugar 
{glycogen?) More than two pounds of bile are 
secreted daily, part of which is stored in the gall- 
bladder until needed. The rest goes into the bile 
duct, which enters the duodenum at almost the 
same point as the duct from the pancreas. 

The small The small intestine is from twenty to 
intestine. twenty-five feet long. It has three 
parts (see plates 13-16), the dug^denum, so called 
because its length is about the width of twelve 
fingers, the jejunum and the ileum. Intestinal 
absorption takes place from the small intestine. 

The Large The large intestine is about five feet 
intestine. long and has three parts, called from 
their direction, the ascending, transverse and 
descending colon. Only waste matter enters the 
large intestine. 

Note. — Before beginning to trace the process 
of digestion, it may be well to warn persons 
using this book, that it is still doubtful which 
organs perform certain parts of this process. 
Upon these points, as upon some others regarding 
the body, there is disagreement among good 



Smith's American Manikin, 53 



authorities, and conflicting statements may be 
found in standard works. The best method is 
to fix upon some reputable book and teach that. 
To attempt many references, unless with ad- 
vanced classes, is unwise. So far as possible, 
the latest and best authority has been adopted 
throughout this book. 
Process of Food is taken into the mouth, chewed 

Digestion. by the teeth an( j m i xec [ w J t h the 

saliva, whose active principle (ftty aline) changes 
some of the starch into sugar. It then passes 
through the pharynx into the oesophagus, and by 
the muscular motion (peristaltic) of that tube is 
passed into the stomach. That organ imme- 
diately begins a like motion and, because of the 
quantity of blood called there to furnish the 
gastric juice and the heat necessary for digestion, 
the inner coat, which was pale red before, becomes 
bright red. The gastric juice flows out upon the 
food, changing such kinds as lean meat, gluten of 
wheat and white of eggs {albuminoids) into a 
form in which they can be absorbed. Liquids 
that are drank and food that has been sufficiently 
liquified, are absorbed and carried into the portal 
vein, which goes to the liver. The more solid 
food, well mixed with gastric juice, forming a 



54 Teachers" Hand Booh. 



rather thick, grayish fluid {chyme) passes through 
the pylorus — which offers no resistance if the 
mass is sufficiently softened — into the duodenum 
(plate 13). Here it receives bile, pancreatic 
juice and intestinal fluid. Bile is supposed to 
break up the fats and to neutralize the gastric 
acid. The pancreatic juice acts upon starch, al- 
buminoids and fats, so combining the action of all 
the digestive fluids with which the food has pre- 
viously come in contact. The intestinal juices 
are supposed to have much the same use. The 
food thus prepared is thin and milky {chyle) and 
is absorbed by the intestinal veins and the lym- 
phatics of the intestines {lacteals). That taken 
up by the veins is carried to the portal vein 
where it joins the absorption from the stomach 
and passes to the liver. That organ, after taking 
out the bile from the blood and producing a kind 
of sugar {glycogen) from the food which the por- 
tal vein brings to it, pours its circulation through 
the hepatic vein into the vena cava inferior, which 
empties into the right auricle of the heart. The 
lacteals carry their portion of intestinal absorp- 
tion to the thoracic duct (plate 11) which passes 
up the back to the left shoulder, where it turns 
forward and empties into the left subclavian vein. 



Smithes American Manikin. 55 



This joins the vena cava superior, which also car- 
ries its contents into the right auricle of the heart. 
The food does not become actual blood until it 
has been subjected to the action of the air in the 
lungs. 

HYGIENE OF DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 

Much injury is done to digestive or- 

Clothing. i ' - i ii. 7™ i. 

gans by tight clothing. lhe liver, 
stomach, diaphragm and intestines suffer from it 
as much as the lungs and heart. 

Time of Irregular eating is a frequent cause of 

eating. deranged digestion. If food is taken 

too often, the organs do not have the necessary 
rest. If it is taken at irregular intervals, the 
"rhythm" of the digestive functions is destroyed. 
The juices will flow more readily at regular and 
customary intervals. Growing children need 
food oftener than adults. Hearty meals should 
not be eaten late in the evening and, if one leads 
a life of leisure, not later than noon is best. If 
one is employed, and the meal can be eaten by 
six o'clock, that is well, for the system can give 
more force to the work of digestion when mind 
and body are at rest. It is unwise to eat just 
before or just after severe physical or mental 



56 Teachers'" Hand Book. 



labor. The blood is needed at the stomach for 
digestion and ought not to be called to the brain 
or muscles. 

Chew the food well. The stomach 

mastication. . . 

is not intended to deal with unmas- 
ticated food. 

The condition of the system largely 

Quantity and J # ° J 

quality of determines how much food is needed 

and, as a general rule, the appetite 
ought not to be urged. Quantit} 7 is oftener in- 
jurious than quality. However, it is better to 
avoid foods difficult of digestion, especially if the 
organs are weak. Food should be palatable and 
varied. The nerves govern digestion as they do 
other functions, and that an article is relished, 
goes far towards its digestion. 

A taste for condiments should not 

Condiments. . 

be acquired. I hough some are com- 
paratively harmless in small quantities, all act as 
spurs to the organs and, like other stimulants, 
leave them weaker and more in need of further 
goading. Black pepper is less harmful than red. 
White pepper is the same as black, except in 
preparation. Many condiments are sharp and 
direct irritants, and of themselves produce serious 
diseases of the digestive organs. 



Smithes American Manikin. 57 



Tea and Coffee has more food value than tea, 

coffee. anc j a j so g rea ter antiseptic properties. 

Coffee stimulates the nervous system more than 
tea but the effect of the latter is more lasting. 

Effects of Alcohol in whatever form is a poison. 
Alcohol. jj- produces warmth when taken into 

the stomach, because of the irritation it causes. 
Gastric juice will not act upon it and, with other 
liquids, it is absorbed directly into the circulation 
and taken to every part of the body. Both 
alcohol and tobacco have been called u negative 
food," because the} 7 retard natural waste of the 
tissues and thus delay hunger. It not only has no 
real food value, but it opposes change of 
structure in foods — in short, preserves them in 
alcohol — and it so changes the organs that they 
cannot properly digest and assimilate the food. 
The lining of the stomach of a moderate drinker 
(15, and extra plate) instead of being of a 
uniform pink color is marked with red lines, 
showing congestion of the smaller blood vessels. 
In this condition more food may be craved but 
will be imperfectly digested. In what has been 
termed moderate drinking, the coats of the 
stomach are liable to become thickened. There 
is always irritation and some of the minute blood 
4 " 



58 Teachers'* Hand Booh. 



vessels break, giving a blotchy appearance. Al- 
though alcohol is the cause of the disturbance, 
such is its paralyzing power that to drink again, 
will temporarily relieve the misery. If the in- 
dulgence grows worse, every part of the stomach 
becomes too much congested and changed to 
perform its natural function, and even this 
digestive surface is interspersed with eating 
ulcers or cancers (see extra plate.) This may 
cause perforation of the stomach. Take the 
extra plate of the healthy stomach — only tinged 
with red as the blood flows placidly through the 
uninjured arteries and veins. Now turn it and 
see the success of man in marring nature's work. 
Nor is this all; take the plate of the healthy liver 
and put it beside that of the liver diseased by 
alcohol. The integrity of the organ is totally gone. 
Every organ, every tissue, every fibre, records 
the wickedness and utter foolishness of the man 
who has given his manhood and his life to selfish 
indulgence in alcohol. Alcohol shows a tendency 
to collect in the brain and liver. Beer is more 
likely than other liquors to produce fatty degen- 
eration of the organs. Hobnail liver, one form 
of disease produced by alcohol, is incurable. 
The natural function of the kidneys is to excrete 



Smithes American Manikin. 59 



urea from the blood. By alcohol, the kidneys 
are first irritated then suffer structural change, 
ending in general dropsy or the almost incurable 
Bright's disease. " Experience, " says Dr. Hunt, 
" has preceded science in crossing it (alcohol) 
from daily rations. It has been while in search 
for the best methods for getting the most intense 
force and power of endurance out of men in 
national service by sea and by land, that this evil 
spirit has been cast out." 

Ernsts of Tobacco is not a food for it contains 
Tobacco. no nourishment. The effect of the 

first tobacco taken into the system ought to 
condemn it. Dizziness, trembling, faintness and 
cold perspiration, feeble pulse, quick and irregu- 
lar breath, give proof that tobacco is a poison. 
Its direct action is on nerve centres, and in ex- 
cessive doses, it produces failure of the respira- 
tion centre and consequent death. 



60 



Teachers 1 Hand Book. 



Foods, 



Digestion 



f Definition. 
Definition of Assimilation. 

r Nitrogenous (sometimes 
called albuminous, also 
proteine), flesh producing. 
Non-nitrogenous (called 
\ also carbonaceous), heat 
and force producing. 
Mineral (assists in digestion 
and in making bone and 
tissue, 
Alimentary or food canal. 

Teeth. 
Salivary glands. 

Pharynx. 



Organs. < 



Mouth . 



Oesophagus. 

Stomach. 

Small ( Duodenum. 

Intestine -< Jejunum. 
Ileum. 



Large 

Intestine < 



Ascending 

colon. 

Transverse 

colon. 

Descending 

colon. 



Accessory . j Liven 

( Pancreas. 



H 



y? 1 



Smithes American Manikin. 61 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

The brain is the organ through which 

What is the & # & 

Nervous the mind manifests itself and through 

which it controls the body and re- 
ceives knowledge of the outside world. In order 
that the mind may work through the brain to 
accomplish these things, the brain must be in 
communication with every part of the body. 
This machinery of communication together with 
the brain as the central station, constitutes the 
nervous system. 

Rinds of All parts of the nervous system are 
Matter. composed of two kinds of substance, 

known as white and gray matter. There is more 
of the white than of the gray matter. The func- 
tion of gray matter is to receive impressions and 
to generate nerve force. In various parts of the 
body occur knots of gray matter (ganglia) 
which are connected with the nervous system. 
They are all nerve centres and have been called 
little brains, because their function is the same in 
kind as that of the brain, except that they lack 
consciousness. The function of white matter is 
transmission of sense impressions and of nerve 
force. 



62 Teachers'* Hand Book. 



Divisions of There are two great divisions of the 

the Nervous 1 . 

system. nervous system, the cerebro-spmal 

and the sympathetic. The cerebro-spinal con- 
sists of the brain (plate 31) and the spinal cord 
(see back of Manikin) with their nerves and 
plexuses. 

structure of The brain occupies the cavity of the 
the Brain. skull and is a soft, delicate organ of 

about the consistency of jelly. Although it is 
the organ of feeling, it has little feeling itself. 

A deep fissure divides the brain into 

Hemispheres. . . 

two hemispheres, so that it is almost 
like a double organ. The two halves are con- 
nected, however, in their lower portions, by a 
body of white matter (commissure), and by 
some parts of the brain whose use is not cer- 
tainly known. The brain is said to receive about 
one-fifth of the blood circulated. 

Th <* The brain is protected by three 

Coverings of . . 

the Brain. membranous coverings. The inner 
(ftia mater) is soft and delicate. It touches 
every part of the surface of the organ and 
furnishes blood for its nourishment. The 
second coat (arachnoid) is a serous membrane, 
and, like all serous membranes, is a closed sac, 



Smithes American Manikin. 63 



which secretes a fluid like the white of an egg 
upon its inner surface. The outer coat {dura 
mater) is thick and tough for protection and lines 
the skull closely. 

The brain is divided into three parts, 
" cerebrum, cerebellum, and medulla 
oblongata. The cerebrum (plates 30, 31) is the 
real organ of the mind. All thought and will 
originate in the cerebrum. It occupies the front 
and upper part of the cranial cavity and extends 
over the cerebellum at the back (plate 31). The 
gray matter of the cerebrum is mostly arranged 
upon the surface and the white matter is beneath 
it. Its surface is not smooth, but is bent into 
many convolutions or folds. The greater the 
surface the more gray matter and consequently 
the more brain power. 

Suggestion — The teacher can illustrate, by a 
line upon the blackboard, or with a piece of 
paper, that a straight line between two points is 
shorter than a line that desfcends into a curve be- 
tween the same two points. 

In a baby's brain, the convolutions are mere 
wavy lines, but as intelligence increases, they 
deepen, thus increasing the surface. 



64 Teachers' Hand Book. 



The cere- The cerebellum (plates 30-31) is 
beiium. much smaller than the cerebrum. 

Its function is to regulate the action of the vol- 
untary muscles, when their use is ordered by the 
cerebrum. If it is injured or influenced by 
alcohol, the movements of the body are unsteady, 
for the voluntary muscles can no longer be con- 
trolled by the will. There are no convolutions 
in the cerebellum, and the white and the gray 
matter are arranged in layers or ridges of 
different depths. From the peculiar appearance 
of a vertical section of the cerebellum, this ar- 
rangement of the gray and the white matter has 
been called the tree of life {arbor vitae^) 

The Meduiia The medulla oblongata (plate 30) 
oblongata. j s ^e beginning of the spinal cord 
and by some authorities is not considered a part 
of the brain. The arrangement of white and 
gray matter is the opposite of that of the cere- 
brum and cerebellum and is like that of the 
spinal cord, that is, the gray matter is upon the 
inside and the white matter is upon the outside. 
Injury to the medulla oblongata causes instant 
death. The nerves that control respiration arise 
in the lower, back part of the medulla oblongata. 



Smithes American Manikin, 65 



The cranial nerves, except two, originate in the 
medulla oblongata. 

The Spinal The spinal cord is but an extension 
cord. Q f t j ie me dulla oblongata. It fills a 

canal hollowed out of the back part of the spinal 
column for its accommodation (see back of 
Manikin.) Its substance is soft, and can be 
readily mashed between the fingers. The right 
side of the brain is connected with the left side 
of the spinal cord, and the left side of the brain 
is connected with the right side of the spinal cord. 
So each side of the brain controls the opposite 
side of the body. 

Nerves are composed of the same 
kinds of matter as the brain and spinal 
cord. The white matter is upon the outside and 
the gray forms an axis within. The nerves are 
thread like and silvery in appearance and are dis- 
tributed to all parts of the body. 

cranial Twelve pairs of nerves branch from 

xerves. ^he brain and are called cranial 

nerves. The first pair, or nerves of smell (olfac- 
tory), and the second pair, or nerves of sight 
(optic), originate in the cerebrum. All other 
cranial nerves spring from the medulla oblongata. 



66 Teachers'* Hand Book. 



They pass through openings in the skull and are 
mostly distributed to the head, throat and mouth. 
Some of them furnish the nerves of special 
sense. The tenth pair (fineumogastric) is dis- 
tributed to the lungs, stomach, heart, liver, etc. 
Because it wanders so far from the brain and 
to so many organs, it is sometimes called -par 
vagum. 

Thirty-one pairs of nerves branch 

Spinal Xerves. . 

from the spinal cord and are dis- 
tributed to the trunk and extremities. Each one 
of these nerves arises by two roots, an anterior 
or motor, and a posterior or sensory root. Each 
posterior root has a ganglion upon it and just be- 
yond the ganglion, the anterior and posterior 
branches are united in one sheath, though each 
retains its special function. Nerves arising from 
the posterior root are called sensory nerves be- 
cause they carry impressions of sense or feeling. 
Those arising from the anterior root are called 
motor nerves because they c^use the muscles to 
produce motion. Sensory nerves are sometimes 
called afferent, because they carry toward the 
brain, while those which carry from the brain 
(motor) are called efferent. One can only feel 
'with his mind, through his brain. 



Smithes American Manikin. 67 



Upon either side of the spinal cord is 

Sympathetic . . 

Nervous a row or ganglia (plate 12). Like 

ganglia are found at various places in 
the head, neck, chest and abdomen. These are 
all connected by nervous filaments and, taken to- 
gether, constitute the sympathetic nervous sys- 
tem. The ganglia send out nerves to the heart, 
lungs, stomach and all other organs of the trunk. 
Also to the blood tubes of the body and to the 
cranial and spinal nerves. Thus it is true that 
the sympathetic nervous system unites the nerves 
of all parts of the body to one another and to the 
brain. Because the principal organs depend so 
much upon the sympathetic nervous system, that 
system has been called the "nervous system of 
organic life." About certain arteries a network 
of sympathetic ganglia and nerves is formed. 
This is called a plexus. The solar plexus (plate 
12) is a good example. It is in the abdomen and 
sends branches to the stomach, intestines, kidneys, 
spleen, liver and other organs. A violent blow 
in the region of the solar plexus is liable to cause 
death. The involuntary functions are, for the 
most part, under the control of the sympathetic 
system. If healthy, the heart, lungs, stomach, 
etc., do their work so quietly that one is not con- 



68 Teachers^ Hand Book. 



scious of possessing such organs. If, however, 
any organ of the bod}' is deranged, through the 
sympathetic nervous connection, pain may be felt 
in another part. For example, if a cold in- 
flames the lungs, the head may ache in sympathy. 
Reflex Any nerve centre (ganglion of gray 

Aetion. matter) may receive a message from 

a sensory nerve and return or reflect an order 
over the motor nerve, without the brain being 
conscious of the impression. This is known as 
reflex action and it is very important, for it 
relieves the brain of most of the responsibility of 
the daily work of existing and leaves it free to do 
the higher bidding of the mind. There are 
reflex actions in which the brain is concerned — 
as, for example, the winking of the eye before a 
threatened blow — but for the most part they are 
unconsciously performed. The sympathetic sys- 
tem and the spinal cord govern the vital functions, 
secretions, absorptions, etc., without knowledge 
of the brain unless something is wrong. 

When the lungs have but little air in them or 
when the air has given up its oxygen for impuri- 
ties, the sensory nerves carry the impression to 
the respiratory centre and it returns, or reflects, 
a command over the motor nerves to the proper 



Smithes American Manikin. 69 



set of muscles to contract and give relief. The 
alternation of these sensations and orders pro- 
duces respiration. When blood fills the cavities 
of the heart, its pressure influences the sensory 
nerves of that organ, and they convey the im- 
pression to the circulatory centre, which imme- 
diately returns or reflects an order over the 
motor nerves, causing the muscles to contract 
and expel the blood. When food is taken into 
the stomach the same thing happens and digestion 
is the result. If the stomach or lungs were in- 
flamed, or the heart were compressed, or if , for 
any other reason, after the sensory nerves had 
notified the appropriate nerve centre, prompt 
relief were not rendered by the order returned 
over the motor nerves, then the impression would 
be sent on to the brain and the mind, as to higher 
authority. There would then be pain, or the 
sensation of something wrong. One might trace 
reflex action of any of the functions which do 
not require special thought. 

All such actions as we have described are called 
natural reflex actions, because they do not have 
to be acquired. There is a class known as arti- 
ficial reflex actions, which must be acquired. 
Anything that requires thought the first time it 



70 Teachers* Hand Book. 



is done, but which grows easier and easier to do, 
until it can be performed without thought, 
belongs to the class of artificial reflex actions. 
All habits, good or bad, belong to this class. 
Walking, and the mechanical part of reading^ 
are other examples. 

The amount of nervous force pro 
thesrervous duced, differs in different people and 

in the same person varies with the 
health of the body. All nervous force ought 
not to be used from day to day. There should 
be some reserve for emergencies. The brain, 
however, like other parts of the body, must be 
used in order to be healthy. Mental and physical 
exhaustion, lack of exercise, or of pure air, may 
be mentioned as injurious to the nervous system. 
Work never harms as worry does. Anxiety, 
fretting, sudden strain of excitement, too much 
responsibility, are among the prominent causes of 
nervous prostration and insanity. Regular and 
constant work can usually be well borne, if the 
mind is placid and the physical health is attended 
to. 

Alcohol has its strongest and most 

Alcohol and 

thewervous lasting effect upon the brain and 
other parts of the nervous system, 



Smithes American Manikin. 71 



because nerve tissue contains much water, and 
alcohol has a great affinity for water. The 
mind, as we have seen, governs the whole body 
through the nervous system, consequently, when 
that system is affected the whole body is affected. 
Alcohol is absorbed directly from the stomach 
into the blood. It is taken to all parts of the 
body and some of it stays in the brain. The 
brain and nerves of a man who is thoroughly in- 
toxicated are temporarily paralyzed. Though 
he may be seriously hurt and the blood flow 
freely, he will not know it. If drinking is ex- 
cessive and long continued, it produces change of 
structure of the brain. It coagulates the sub- 
stance of that organ. 

Experiment, — The teacher may pour a little 
alcohol upon the white of an egg in a glass and 
show the children the effect. The egg will be 
coagulated or cooked. The effect upon the 
brain is the same. When this change of 
structure takes place, the man is changed. Pride, 
energy, manly qualities of every kind are all gone. 
He is a burden and a curse to himself and to the 
community. How often does one hear the re- 
mark, " He was a fine man before he took to 
drink." That tells the story of the first stage, 



72 Teachers* Hand Book. 



when he " did not take enough to hurt him;" of 
the second stage, when occasionally the "tongue 
was thick/' and the gait unsteady, and he curtly 
boasted that he could u drink or let it alone;" of 
a little later time, when not only functional but 
structural change of brain had begun — when he 
was growing conscious of the grip of the habit 
but still said to himself that he " could quit, if he 
wanted to." There was the point that showed 
the damage. Why did he not want to, when it 
was so apparent that his capital of life was going? 
Why was it that at this stage he chose to con- 
tinue to drink alcoholics until his business reputa- 
tion was gone and his dearest ties w r ere but 
cobwebs compared with his desire for alcohol, 
until no moral obligation was binding upon him 
if alcohol said no, and until he, himself, declared, 
almost with relief, that it was no use to try to 
break the habit, and so pursued his way towards 
delirium tremens and a drunkard's grave, and is 
spoken of as a wreck " that was a fine man 
before he took to drink?" In the beginning it 
was probably true that he could drink or let it 
alone, but as the brain tissues hardened, and an 
unnatural amount of connective tissue formed 
there, and as every other organ of the body 



Smith? s American Manikin. 73 



became more or less a mass of fat or corruption, 
the habit grew stronger and stronger while he 
degenerated physically, mentally and morally, and 
had less and less of even his native strength 
wherewith to oppose it. 

Tobacco contains the poison called 

Tobacco and . . 

tncxervous nicotine, whose effect is directly 
upon the nervous system. It is 
liable to produce an irritable condition of brain 
and heart and digestive organs. The soothing 
calm so valued as the accompaniment of tobacco- 
using, is proof that it is a narcotic poison. When 
used by the young, it stunts development of body 
and mind. So violent is the protest of nature 
against it, that even an habitual tobacco chewer 
is apt to feel sick if he shifts his disgusting quid 
from the accustomed side of his mouth to the 
other. Smoking is more injurious to the lungs 
and throat, and chewing to the digestion. Either 
chewing or smoking may result in a nicotine sore 
or cancer. These usually develop upon the lips 
or tongue or in the throat. Some of the promi- 
nent men of our country have died from nicotine 
cancers. 

The nerve centres (by reflex action), have a 
tendency to produce a recurrence of an action 
5 



74 Teachers'* Hand Book. 



once performed. It is well to impress this fact 
upon children — and others — in order that they 
may shun doing for the first time what may 
become a dangerous habit. 



& 



Nervous 

System^ 



Cerebrum, 

Cerebro- \ Brain \ Cerebellum, 

Spinal^ [ Medulla Oblongata. 

I Spinal Cord. 
Sympathetic. 

Nerves (Motor, 

( Sensory. 

Reflex Action. 
|^ Hygiene. 



SPECIAL SENSES. 

Nerves of special sense are each effective only 
in its own work. For example, the nerve of 
smell is only useful for smelling, and one can 
neither see with the nerve of hearing nor hear 
with the nerve of sight. The nerves are the 
same so far as can be detected, but the part of 
the brain with which each connects, can give 
only its particular impression to the mind. 

We speak of five special senses, but 

Touch. r r 

the sense of touch depends upon the 



Smith's American Manikin. 75 



common nerves of sensation throughout the 
body. In places where the sense of touch is 
especially acute, there are, beside the regular 
nerve-layer of the skin, small bodies which are 
abundantly supplied with nerve fibers. These 
are called tactile bodies and are most numerous 
in the ends of the fingers and the tip of the 
tongue. The sense of touch can be wonderfully 
developed. By it, the blind can often read 
slightly raised letters, and can even recognize 
persons whom they have met before. Merchants 
can sometimes tell the quality of teas and spices 
by touch, and many a housekeeper can predict 
the quality of bread by the " feel of the flour." 

Taste enables us to appreciate flavors. 

Taste. 

It is located principally in the tongue, 
but, also, to some extent, in the soft palate and 
the throat. The papillae of the tongue are so 
much developed that they give a velvety appear- 
ance to that organ. If the tongue is u coated," 
the taste is lessened or destroyed, for absorption 
is diminished or prevented. There is no special 
nerve of taste, but branches of some of the 
cranial nerves supply this sense, and these are 
sometimes called nerves of taste. 



76 Teachers'* Hand Book. 



Processor Only substances that are dissolved 
Tasting. can ] 3e tasted. Small portions of 

the dissolved substance are absorbed by the 
membrane of the tongue, palate and throat and, 
coming in contact with the fibres of the nerves 
of taste, cause a sensation to be carried to the 
brain, from which the mind receives the impres- 
sion that we call taste. Very often the sense of 
smell produces a great part of what seems a 
flavor. This is the case in eating onions or in 
drinking coffee. The sense of taste enables man 
to select and enjoy his food but it is the most 
commonly perverted of all the senses. Almost 
every one has "learned to like" something that 
is not good for him. Many condiments are not 
agreeable when first used and tobacco is never 
pleasant to the taste at first. 

organ The nose is the organ of smell and is 

of smeii. so situated as to afford some warning 
of impure air and improper food before they can 
harm the body. It is not, however, infallible, for 
some deadly substances have no odor. The 
partition between the nostrils is partly of bone (the 
vomer) and partly of cartilage, as you may as- 
sure yourself by feeling of your own nose. The 
cartilage gives shape to the end of the nose and 



Smithes American Manikin. 77 



renders it much less liable to breakage than it 
would be if the entire partition was of bone. It 
is also true that in speaking and in facial ex- 
pression the flexibility of the nose is an advan- 
tage. At the base of the nose is a plate of the 
ethmoid bone (cribriform -plate). On the upper 
side of this plate rest the bulbs of the nerves of 
smell (olfactory), and delicate nerves are sent 
from the bulbs through the sieve-like holes of the 
cribriform plate into the upper part of the nostrils, 
and are spread out upon the mucous membrane 
that covers the superior and middle turbinated 
bones (plate 30.) It will be readily seen that 
breathing brings air into contact with the mem- 
brane, and that, in eating, odors can pass to it 
from the throat. We sniff the air to bring in 
more of an odor and to insure its contact with 
every part of the olfactory membrane. 

The Process Anything that has an odor, sends 
of smelling. j nt;0 t j ie a j r m j nu t e particles of its 

substance, which lodge upon the olfactory mem- 
brane and produce an effect upon the nerves. 
The nerves carry this effect to the brain, and the 
impression which the mind receives from the 
brain we call the sensation of smell. So you see 



78 Teachers* Hand Book. 



that we smell as well as touch and taste with the 
mind. 

The sense of smell can be developed 

€are of the . f x 

sense of and trained. ihe health of the 

membrane is dependent upon the 
same things that conduce to health of body, es- 
pecially upon fresh air. Odors that are pleasant 
to one may be annoying to another. Colds, or 
other causes of irritation, are injurious and may 
result in loss of smell. When the membrane is 
very sensitive, dust or the pollen of flowers may 
give all the conditions of a cold. The state re- 
sulting from the last mentioned cause is known 
as rose-cold or hay-fever. 

The ear is the organ of hearing and 

Hearing. . in- * 

is almost wholly situated m the tem- 
poral bone. The special nerves of hearing are 
the eighth cranial pair (auditory?). The ear is 
divided into external, middle and internal. 

External The external ear consists of the folded 
Ear - sheet of cartilage, usually spoken of as 

the ear, (pinna — plate 32) and the auditory canal 
(meatus externus — plate 32). The auditory 
canal is a little more than an inch long and is 
both higher and smaller in the middle than at 



Smith? s American Manikin. 79 



either end. The lining of the canal contains 
hairs, oil glands, perspiration glands and wax- 
producing glands. The wax is sticky and bit- 
ter and prevents dust and insects from harming 
the ear. The inner end of the auditory canal is 
closed by a membrane called the drum-head 
{membrana tympani), which forms a partition 
between the outer and middle ear. Muscles 
attached to the inner side of this membrane serve 
to stretch it more tightly when one is listening. 

The Middle The middle ear is a cavity extending 
Ear. from the drum-head to the inner ear. 

It is lined with mucous membrane and filled with 
air. A tube {Eustachian) opening out of the 
middle ear, extends to the throat (plate 30 — Orf. 
of E. tube), and allows passage of air in and out, 
thus equalizing the pressure of air upon the 
drum-head. The closing of this tube, as some- 
times happens in a cold, will impair the hearing. 
A number of little air cavities {mastoid cells) 
connect with the middle ear and are supposed to 
increase the resonance of sound. Three little 
bones, the hammer {malleus), anvil {incus) and 
stirrup {stapes), stretch across the cavity of the 
middle ear from the drum-head to a membrane- 
closed window between the middle and inner ear. 



80 Teachers'' Hand Booh. 



The handle of the hammer is attached to the 
drum-head and its head is joined to the anvil by 
a true joint. The anvil articulates with the 
stirrup and the foot of the stirrup fits into the 
oval window (fenestra ovalis) of the' inner ear. 

The internal The internal ear, often called the 
Ear - labyrinth, consists of the vestibule, 

the semicircular canals and the cochlea or snail- 
shell. The different parts of the inner ear secrete 
a fluid in which float minute fibres of the auditory 
nerve. 

The vestibule is connected with the middle ear 
by two membrane-closed openings, against the 
larger of which the foot of the stirrup rests. 

The semicircular canals are three in number 
and open out of the vestibule. They are sup- 
posed to be concerned in the regulation of certain 
movements of the head. Formerly they were 
believed to emphasize sound. 

The cochlea or snail-shell, so called from its re- 
semblance to that object, is the most delicate and 
complicated part of the ear. It consists of a kind 
of tube coiled two and one-half times around a 
central axis. Inside the tube, fine nerve fibres 
are arranged in an exceedingly intricate way and 



Smithes American Manikin. 81 



the whole is marvelously adapted to the purpose 
which it serves. 

The Process Elastic bodies cause vibrations when 
of Hearing, struck or jarred. The pinna gathers 
these vibrations and they pass through the audi- 
tory canal and set the drum-head (membrana 
tympani) in motion. This, in turn, communi- 
cates the vibrations to the chain of bones which 
crosses the middle ear, and to the air with which 
it is filled, and they impart the motion to the 
fluid of the internal ear. The agitation of the 
fluid is communicated to the fine divisions of the 
nerves of hearing and thence to the brain, and the 
mind receives the impression called hearing. 
care of Blows upon the ears are always dan- 

jhe Ear. gerous. The habit of poking in the 

ears with pins, hairpins, etc., is very injurious. 
The little finger is too large to enter the ear 
without stretching the auditory canal. The 
ear can be cleansed with a little warm water 
and wiped with the rolled end of a soft cloth. 
Be careful to dry the ear thoroughly. Do not let 
the wind blow into the ear. Breathing with the 
mouth open is bad for the ears. Smoking is also 
bad, for it dries the lining membrane and injures 
the hearing. 



82 Teachers'* Hand Book. 



The special nerves of sight are the 

Sight. i . r • i , . > 

second pair or cranial nerves (optic). 

The organ of sight is the eye. 

Protection Each eye is set in a bony cavity or 
of the Eye. socket. The eyebrows, eyelids and 
lashes serve to protect the eyes from excess of 
light and from dust, perspiration and other harm- 
ful things. The lids are lined with a sensitive 
mucous membrane (conjunctiva), which also 
covers the front of the eye. A thin strip of 
cartilage upon the edge of each eyelid contains 
glands (meibomian) which secrete oil to prevent 
the lids from adhering and the tears from over- 
flowing. 

suggestive To illustrate this, the teacher may 
Experiment, grease the edge of a cup and then 
fill it with water. The water can be raised 
higher than the rim without overflowing. 

The Tear The tear (lachrymal) glands are 
viands. situated on the upper side of each 

orbit and at the outer angle. Each discharges 
moisture into the eye by several ducts. The eye- 
lids assist in distributing the moisture and the 
flow passes over the eye and enters the nose by 
nasal ducts. When these ducts are closed, the 



Smithes American Manikin, 83 



moisture accumulates, and the eye is called a 
44 weeping eye." 

outer coat The eye has three coats. The outer 
of the Eye. (sclerotic) is white and firm and 
gives protection. The front of it is formed by 
the cornea, which is transparent, to allow the 
passage of light. (If one looks at the light, 
across the eye of another person, this can easily 
be seen.) 

second coat The second coat (choroid) is lined 
of the Eye. with a layer of cells, containing an 
almost black pigment for the absorption of super- 
fluous rays of light. The front of the second 
coat is formed by the iris. The iris gives color 
to the eye and has an opening in the middle 
called the pupil. Two sets of muscles— one 
radiating and one circular — form the iris. When 
the radiating layer contracts, the pupil is en- 
larged and when the circular layer contracts, the 
pupil is diminished. 

TMrdCnat The inner coat (retina) covers the 
of the Eye. posterior five-sixths of the eyeball. 
It contains numberless terminal filaments of the 
optic nerve, which enters the eye from behind 
and a little nearer to the nose than the middle. 



84. Teachers^ Hand Book. 



interior of The interior of the eye is divided 
the Eye. j nto two chambers. The front, or 

anterior, chamber contains a few drops of thin 
fluid called aqueous humor. The back, or pos- 
terior, chamber is filled with a clear, transparent 
substance about as thick as thin jelly, called 
vitreous humor. It touches every part of the 
retina. In front of the vitreous humor and back 
of the iris is the crystalline lens. The cornea, 
aqueous humor, crystalline lens and vitreous 
humor, acting together, bring light-rays to a 
focus upon the retina. The optic nerve carries 
the effect to the brain and the mind receives the 
sensation of sight. One may see the image upon 
the retina by looking into the pupil of the eye of 
another person. 

Adjustment There are muscles upon the interior 
of the Eye. Q £ ^he eye for the adjustment of the 
crystalline lens. Upon the outside (plate 33) of 
the eyeball are six muscles, for turning it. Four 
are straight, to turn it to either side or up or 
down, and two are oblique for giving a rolling 
motion. These muscles are inserted into the 
sclerotic, or outer, coat of the eye. 



Smithes American Manikin. 85 



care of Have an abundance of steady light 

the Eye. ] 3ut fi nQ ^ J et a g} are Q f light fall Upon 

) T our work. It is better to have light fall from 
above; it ought never to come from the front. 
Never read while riding or walking or lying 
down. Do not bend over when using the eyes, 
nor continue their use after they are tired. 

THE SKIN. 

The skin is composed of two layers, the cuticle 
and the cutis. (Some text books divide the 
cutis, making, in all, three layers; and even 
further subdivision may be found.) 

structure of The outer layer of the skin is the 
the cuticle. cuticle (sometimes called false skin, 
or scarf skin, or epidermis.) It has no nerves or 
blood vessels and is only for protection of the 
cutis, which is beneath it. The dry cells of the 
cuticle are constantly rubbing off and new ones 
are supplied from the cutis. The cuticle cells 
which are next to the cutis — and last formed — 
are moist and round, and contain a pigment that 
determines the complexion. As they are pushed 
nearer and nearer to the surface, they become 



86 Teachers'* Hand Book. 



drier and flatter and finally fall off. The pigment 
sometimes collects in spots which are called 
" freckles." 

The cutis (sometimes called cutis 

Structure ami x 

Functions of vera, or true skin, also, dermis and 

the Cutis. \ . , i . t t r 

conum) is a thick net work or 
tissues, and contains nerves, muscles, arteries, 
capillaries, veins, absorbents (lymphatics), oil 
glands, perspiration glands and hair follicles. In 
the connective tissue of the lower layer of the 
cutis, fat accumulates. The surface of the cutis 
is raised in little cones or points. These are 
papillae, and each one is furnished with minute 
blood vessels and with an abundant supply of 
nerve filaments. Nerves of common feeling are 
more thickly distributed in the skin than in any 
other part of the body. Papillae are generally 
arranged in rows or ridges. They may be easily 
seen on the ends of the fingers. Where the 
papillae are most developed, there are small 
bodies made up of nerves (tactile bodies) in 
which the special sense of touch resides. The 
oil glands send out oil to keep the skin soft and 
the perspiration glands throw off waste matter 
and regulate the heat of the body. The ab- 
sorbents of the skin are intended to absorb 



Smith? s American Manikin. 87 



oxygen but will take anything presented to 
them. Morphine and other substances injected 
under the cuticle are taken up by the absorbents 
and put directly into the venous circulation. 

Hair and Hair grows from bulbs or roots in 
Nails. |.] ie cu tj s# Each hair consists of a 

pith-like centre surrounded by a delicate tissue 
and then by a layer of cells just like the cells of 
the cuticle. Nails are a modification of the 
cuticle. They grow from a fold or groove 
(matrix) in the cuticle. They increase from the 
root in length, and from below, in thickness. 

Hygiene of Habits of cleanliness are the most 
the skin. essential means for keeping the skin 

healthy. Bathing is necessary, rubbing is good 
and oiling is sometimes beneficial. Sunshine is 
necessar}' to the health of the skin and to the 
proper purifying of the blood. 

ALCOHOL AND OTHER NARCOTICS. 

Good citizens are the safety of the republic. 
The fact that the use of alcohol and other nar- 
cotics is an enemy to good citizenship, justifies 
the State in providing public school instruction 
concerning their effects. It also justifies the at- 



88 Teachers'* Hand Book. 



tention which the subject has received in the con- 
struction of Smith's American Manikin and in the 
text of this little manual. Physical health is the 
foundation of a sound mind and of sound morals. 
The use of alcohol and other narcotics destroys 
physical health. Too often the impression is 
given that indulgence in these poisons is pleasant 
and no word is spoken about the many pleasures 
of which they deprive their slave. The teacher 
should diligently show that it is "The way of the 
transgressor" which is u hard." It has been 
claimed that these substances are medicines. The 
statement is admitted, but who would think of 
taking quinine or belladonna habitually? 

what a The word narcotic comes from a 

Narcotic is. Greek word, meaning to benumb. A 
narcotic is any substance which in medicinal 
doses relieves pain and produces sleep; but which 
in poisonous doses produces stupor, coma, con- 
vulsions, and, in sufficient quantities, causes death. 
Opium is obtained from the white poppy and is a 
most dangerous narcotic, whose abuse is increas- 
ing. Chloral is a narcotic much used to produce 
sleep. Cocaine is another of these benumbing 
agents, whose habitual use cause ruin of body 
and mind. Tobacco is a harmful narcotic. Its 



Smith's American Manikin. 89 



use produces an irritable condition of the entire 
svstem, which demands an ever-increasing 
strength in the sedative used to allay it. This 
often leads to the habit of drinking alcohol 
which " is a powerful narcotic and has all the 
essential properties of the class. " In addition 
to the properties of the class to which it be- 
longs, " alcohol has qualities peculiar to itself." 
It is a thin, colorless liquid, lighter than water 
and causes a biting, burning sensation when taken 
into the mouth. It burns with a blue flame and 
produces much heat. (If the teacher will pour a 
very little alcohol into a saucer and touch a 
lighted match to it, the experiment will be pretty 
and impressive.) "Alcohol does not exist any- 
where in Nature, either in grain or fruit or any- 
thing else. It is always produced from sugar by 
an artificial process. " 
summary of Taken into the human system, it 

the Effects of •> ' 

Alcohol upon dries and hardens all the tissues 

the Important • . . c 

organs. because or its amnity tor water. By 

its repeated paralyzing effect upon the nervous 
system, it deranges every part of the body. It 
burns the stomach, changes the gastric juice and 
preserves the food from digestion. It produces 
in the liver, irritation, congestion and fatty de- 



90 Teachers' 1 Hand Book. 



generation. It prevents the proper oxidation 
and purification of blood in the lungs, and favors 
consumption. For a time, it may seem to stimu- 
late the action of the heart, but this is because it 
paralyzes the nerves which govern the flow of the 
blood through that organ. It produces functional 
and structural change of all the important organs 
of the body. Supplemented as it must be by the 
observation of each one, enough has probably 
been said to convince any unprejudiced mind that, 
except as carefully administered medicines, every- 
thing is against and nothing for the use of alcohol 
and other narcotics. 



